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The techniques for manipulation, cloning, and expression were first developed in bacteria but are now applied routinely in a variety of model eukaryotes. The genomes of eukaryotes are larger and more complex than those of bacteria, so modifications of the techniques are needed to handle the larger amounts of and the array of different cells and life cycles of eukaryotes. For instance, some eukaryotic proteins cannot be easily expressed in large amounts in bacteria, and eukaryotic expression systems need to be employed. Widely used –expression system for eukaryotic proteins is insect baculovirus, into which genes are inserted and expressed at high rates in cultured insect cells, as depicted in ). Although eukaryotic genes are cloned and sequenced in bacterial hosts, it is often desirable to introduce such genes back into the original eukaryotic host or into another — in other words, to make a transgenic eukaryote. Transgenic eukaryotes is introduced into a by a variety of techniques, such as, injection, viral infection, or bombardment with DNA-coated tungsten particles (). As we learned in Chapter 12, when exogenously added DNA that is originally from that organism inserts into the, it can either replace the resident or insert ectopically.

If the DNA is a from another, it inserts ectopically. (Vectors that replicate autonomously in eukaryotic cells are rare; so, in most cases, chromosomal integration is the route followed.). Some of the different ways of introducing foreign DNA into a cell. The possibility of transgenic modification of eukaryotes such as plants and animals (including humans) opens up many new approaches to research because genotypes can be genetically engineered to make them suitable for some specific experiment. (An example in basic research is in the use of reporter genes.